Week9_Assignment/intro2ipy.ipynb

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    "<DIV ALIGN=CENTER>\n",
    "\n",
    "# Introduction to the IPython Notebook\n",
    "## Professor Robert J. Brunner\n",
    "  \n",
    "</DIV>  \n",
    "-----\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  },
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   "cell_type": "markdown",
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   "source": [
    "## Introduction to the IPython Notebook\n",
    "\n",
    "The [IPython notebook][i] is a browser based scientific notebook, and\n",
    "is, therefore, extremely useful for learning and doing data science\n",
    "tasks. While [IPython][1] initially supported the [Python][2]\n",
    "programming language, the IPython notebook was expanded to support\n",
    "additional programming languages, including [R][3], [Julia][4], and\n",
    "[Haskell][5]. In addition, you can directly embed scripts, including\n",
    "[Bash shell][6] scripts, in a cell. This technology has gained\n",
    "tremendous popularity quite rapidly, and is continuing to be developed,\n",
    "going forward this project has been reorganized as [Project Jupyter][6]\n",
    "to highlight the programming language agnostic view the notebook concept\n",
    "has embraced. In addition, the IPython team develops and maintains a set\n",
    "of [Docker images][7] to simplify the adoption of IPython notebooks.\n",
    "\n",
    "In this notebook, we will explore the IPython Notebook, specifically\n",
    "focusing on\n",
    "\n",
    "- IPython magics\n",
    "- writing markdown formatted cells\n",
    "- including math formulae\n",
    "- writing and executing Python code\n",
    "- visualizing plots\n",
    "- writing and executing Unix commands\n",
    "- writing and executing Bash shell scripts\n",
    "\n",
    "Our coverage of most of these topics will be brief, given the time\n",
    "limitations of this course. For some topics, links will be provided for\n",
    "more detailed reference; a good example is IPython's [Rich Output][9]\n",
    "capabilities. However, we will explore some topics, such as writing and\n",
    "executing code, in more detail through the rest of this course. \n",
    "\n",
    "The IPython team has provided a nice [introduction to working][10] in an\n",
    "IPython Notebook, including how to use the menu commands, toolbar, and\n",
    "keyboard shortcuts. Of these, the most important points are to use the\n",
    "mouse to select a cell by single-clicking, and to enter a cell for\n",
    "editing by double-clicking. To have the IPython kernel process a cell,\n",
    "you can either enter control-return, which processes and remains in the\n",
    "current cell, or shift-return, which processes the cell and advances to\n",
    "the next cell. Finally, another important keyboard trick is to place a\n",
    "question mark, `?`, at the end of a IPython magic or Python keyword to\n",
    "bring upan IPython message window that provides online details for the\n",
    "magic or keyword.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----\n",
    "[i]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/Notebook/What%20is%20the%20IPython%20Notebook.ipynb\n",
    "[1]: http://www.ipython.org\n",
    "[2]: http://www.python.org\n",
    "[3]: http://rpy.sourceforge.net/rpy2/doc-2.4/html/interactive.html#module-rpy2.ipython.rmagic\n",
    "[4]: https://github.com/JuliaLang/IJulia.jl\n",
    "[5]: https://github.com/gibiansky/IHaskell\n",
    "[6]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/IPython%20Kernel/Script%20Magics.ipynb\n",
    "[7]: http://jupyter.org\n",
    "[8]: https://registry.hub.docker.com/repos/ipython/\n",
    "[9]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/IPython%20Kernel/Rich%20Output.ipynb\n",
    "[10]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/Notebook/Notebook%20Basics.ipynb"
   ]
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    "## IPython Magics\n",
    "\n",
    "IPython has [specific commands][1], known as magics, that you can\n",
    "execute within a code cell to provide enhanced functionality to the\n",
    "current IPython notebook. Magics are not part of the Python programming\n",
    "language, but can often make programming easier, especially within the\n",
    "notebook, and some magics can be used to improve your data processing\n",
    "work flow. Magics come in two types:\n",
    "\n",
    "1. line magics, and\n",
    "2. cell magics.\n",
    "\n",
    "To see the list of currently available magics, execute the following cell."
   ]
  },
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        "file": "Other",
        "html": "DisplayMagics",
        "javascript": "DisplayMagics",
        "latex": "DisplayMagics",
        "perl": "Other",
        "prun": "ExecutionMagics",
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        "python": "Other",
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        "bookmark": "OSMagics",
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        "precision": "BasicMagics",
        "profile": "BasicMagics",
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        "psearch": "NamespaceMagics",
        "psource": "NamespaceMagics",
        "pushd": "OSMagics",
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        "pycat": "OSMagics",
        "pylab": "PylabMagics",
        "qtconsole": "KernelMagics",
        "quickref": "BasicMagics",
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       "Available line magics:\n",
       "%alias  %alias_magic  %autocall  %automagic  %autosave  %bookmark  %cat  %cd  %clear  %colors  %config  %connect_info  %cp  %debug  %dhist  %dirs  %doctest_mode  %ed  %edit  %env  %gui  %hist  %history  %install_default_config  %install_ext  %install_profiles  %killbgscripts  %ldir  %less  %lf  %lk  %ll  %load  %load_ext  %loadpy  %logoff  %logon  %logstart  %logstate  %logstop  %ls  %lsmagic  %lx  %macro  %magic  %man  %matplotlib  %mkdir  %more  %mv  %notebook  %page  %pastebin  %pdb  %pdef  %pdoc  %pfile  %pinfo  %pinfo2  %popd  %pprint  %precision  %profile  %prun  %psearch  %psource  %pushd  %pwd  %pycat  %pylab  %qtconsole  %quickref  %recall  %rehashx  %reload_ext  %rep  %rerun  %reset  %reset_selective  %rm  %rmdir  %run  %save  %sc  %set_env  %store  %sx  %system  %tb  %time  %timeit  %unalias  %unload_ext  %who  %who_ls  %whos  %xdel  %xmode\n",
       "\n",
       "Available cell magics:\n",
       "%%!  %%HTML  %%SVG  %%bash  %%capture  %%debug  %%file  %%html  %%javascript  %%latex  %%perl  %%prun  %%pypy  %%python  %%python2  %%python3  %%ruby  %%script  %%sh  %%svg  %%sx  %%system  %%time  %%timeit  %%writefile\n",
       "\n",
       "Automagic is ON, % prefix IS NOT needed for line magics."
      ]
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    "%lsmagic"
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    "-----\n",
    "\n",
    "### line magic\n",
    "\n",
    "A line magic is prepended by a single `%` character, and will have any\n",
    "arguments specified all on the same line. As a caveat to this statement,\n",
    "if the line magic `Automagic` is set to `on`, the preceding `%`\n",
    "character is not required. Some useful line magics include:\n",
    "\n",
    "- `%lsmagic`, which lists all currently defined line and cell magics for the current notebook,\n",
    "- `%matplotlib`, which allows inline plotting to be enabled (and is preferred over the old `%pylab` magic,\n",
    "- `%run`, which will run the named file as a program in the current cell,\n",
    "- `%autosave`, which sets the default autosave frequency in seconds, and\n",
    "- `%timeit`, which in line mode times the execution of a single line of code.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
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   "source": [
    "\n",
    "### cell magics\n",
    "\n",
    "A cell magic is prepended by two `%` characters, and they can have\n",
    "arguments that include both the current line and the remaining lines in\n",
    "the current cell. Thus, cell magics must be placed on the first line of\n",
    "a cell, and in general you can only have one cell magic per cell. Some\n",
    "useful line magics include:\n",
    "\n",
    "- '%%timeit', which can be used to time a multi-line Python statement,\n",
    "- '%%run', \n",
    "- '%%writefile' wites the contents of the cell into the named file,\n",
    "- '%%script', which can be used to create and run a script in a subprocess including Python, Bash, or R, and\n",
    "- '%%bash', which lets you run a Bash shell script and optionally capture the STDOUT and STDERR streams into variables.\n",
    "\n",
    "If you are uncertain how to use a particular magic, you can always\n",
    "obtain help from the IPython kernel by entering the magic by itself in a\n",
    "cell, adding a `?` character at the end, and executing the cell to bring\n",
    "up the IPython help window, as shown below for the `%writefile` magic.\n",
    "\n",
    "![IPython magic help](images/ipython-help.png)\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  },
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   "source": [
    "## Header Cells\n",
    "\n",
    "While you can use Markdown, described next, to create formatted header\n",
    "lines, the recommended technique is to explicitly make a header cell.\n",
    "You can create a cell to hold the header text, for example \"Introduction\n",
    "to the IPython Notebook\" and change the cell type to the appropriate\n",
    "header level by using the cell toolbar, as shown below.\n",
    "\n",
    "![Cell Toolbar](images/cell-toolbar.png)\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Raw NBConvert Cells\n",
    "\n",
    "The IPython Notebook can be converted into a number of different output\n",
    "formats. The `nbconvert` tool is used to convert from the default JSON\n",
    "native format of an `ipynb` file into the desired output format. The\n",
    "contents of any Raw NBConvert cell are left unmodified during output.\n",
    "This allows for post-processing of the generated file, such as with\n",
    "LaTeX or Restructured Text. These cells are beyond the scope of this\n",
    "course.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  },
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   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Markdown Cells\n",
    "\n",
    "[Markdown][1] is a plain text formatting syntax that you can easily use\n",
    "to write text that can be converted to formatted text, for example,\n",
    "HTML. Markdown was developed by John Gruber, who runs the popular\n",
    "[Daring Fireball][df] blog. Markdown has found many uses, two of which\n",
    "are relevant for this course:\n",
    "1. github documentation pages\n",
    "2. IPython Notebook documentation cells.\n",
    "\n",
    "Markdown is [free software][2] that is available under a BSD--style open\n",
    "source license. The IPython organization has an [IPython Notebook][3]\n",
    "that demonstrates how to use Markdown within a cell to produce formatted\n",
    "text, and of course the documentation for this course consists of github\n",
    "markdown files and IPython Notebooks that are documented by using\n",
    "Markdown cells.\n",
    "\n",
    "In the rest of this section, we will briefly review some of the more\n",
    "useful Markdown formats.\n",
    "\n",
    "### Header Text\n",
    "\n",
    "You can mark different sections of text by using different header levels\n",
    "(you can also use the IPython Notebook _Header_ cells). Markdown\n",
    "provides support for six header levels, which are generally marked by\n",
    "one or more hash `#` characters, where the number of hash characters\n",
    "indicates the header level. For example, to make a second level header\n",
    "text called _Markdown Cells_, you would use the following:\n",
    "```\n",
    "## Markdown Cells\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "### Paragraphs\n",
    "\n",
    "Normally, you simply write text as normal for a document. Paragraphs are\n",
    "simply one or more lines that are enclosed in blank lines. If you need\n",
    "to insert a line break between two lins of text (sometimes useful when\n",
    "writing out lists), you simply add two or more blank spaces at the end\n",
    "of the line to break.\n",
    "\n",
    "### Emphasis\n",
    "\n",
    "You can easily indicate text that should be _italicized_ by enclosing\n",
    "the appropriate text in either single asterisk `*` characters or single\n",
    "underscore `_` characters. Likewise, for __bold__ text, you enclose the\n",
    "text in two asterisk `**` or underscore `__` characters. My personal\n",
    "preference is to underscore characters, for example the following\n",
    "Markdown text will first create __bold text__ followed by _italics text_:\n",
    "```\n",
    "first create __bold text__ followed by _italics text_\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "### Lists\n",
    "\n",
    "You can easily create two types of lists in Markdown: unordered and\n",
    "ordered, both of which can be nested. To make a simple unordered list,\n",
    "we simply prefix the list entries (that is a line) by a single asterisk\n",
    "`*`, dash `-`, or plus `+` character. To create a nested list, you\n",
    "indent the nested list by one or more spaces. For consistency, I prefer\n",
    "to use the dash `-` character to indicate unordered lists. For example,\n",
    "the following Markdown:\n",
    "\n",
    "```markdown\n",
    "- Item 1\n",
    "- Item 2\n",
    " - Item 2.1\n",
    " - Item 2.2\n",
    "- Item 3\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "will produce the following list:\n",
    "- Item 1\n",
    "- Item 2\n",
    " - Item 2.1\n",
    " - Item 2.2\n",
    "- Item 3\n",
    "\n",
    "Ordered lists are similar, but are prefixed by numbers and a period, for\n",
    "example 1. for the first item. While the Markdown numbers do not have to\n",
    "start at one nor be sequential, the resulting text will be formatted to\n",
    "begin at one and proceed sequentially. For example, the following\n",
    "Markdown:\n",
    "\n",
    "```markdown\n",
    "2. Item 1\n",
    "4. Item 2  \n",
    "1. Item 3\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "will produce the following list:\n",
    "2. Item 1\n",
    "4. Item 2  \n",
    "1. Item 3\n",
    "\n",
    "### Representing code elements\n",
    "\n",
    "One of the most useful features of Markdown is the ability to include\n",
    "formatted code directly in the text. Code elements can be included in\n",
    "two manners: inline, and block. Inline code elements are simply wrapped\n",
    "in single starting quote \\` characters (also called tick marks). For\n",
    "example, the Markdown \\`print(\"Hello World!\")\\` renders as `print(\"Hello\n",
    "World!\")`. Code blocks can also be placed on a single line with no quote\n",
    "characters by indenting the line four characters:\n",
    "\n",
    "    print(\"Hello World!\")\n",
    "\n",
    "For longer code blocks, you can enclose the block in three single quote\n",
    "characters \\`\\`\\`. For example, the following code block in Markdown:   \n",
    "\n",
    "\\`\\`\\`  \n",
    "x = 3  \n",
    "y = 4  \n",
    "z = 5   \n",
    "  \n",
    "print(\"%b\" % (x\\*\\*2 + y\\*\\*2 = z\\*\\*2)   \n",
    "\\`\\`\\`\n",
    "\n",
    "will produce the following code block:  \n",
    "\n",
    "```\n",
    "x = 3  \n",
    "y = 4  \n",
    "z = 5   \n",
    "  \n",
    "print(\"%b\" % (x**2 + y**2 = z**2) \n",
    "```   \n",
    "\n",
    "You also can use what is known as github flavored Markdown to indicate\n",
    "the target program language by adding the language name after the\n",
    "initial three single quote characters. For example, to indicate Python,\n",
    "you would use \\`\\`\\`python, while to indicate Javascript, you would use\n",
    "\\`\\`\\`javascript. For example, applying this to the previous example, produces the sybtax-highlighted version:\n",
    "\n",
    "```python  \n",
    "x = 3  \n",
    "y = 4  \n",
    "z = 5   \n",
    "  \n",
    "print(\"%b\" % (x**2 + y**2 = z**2) \n",
    "```   \n",
    "\n",
    "### Quoting text\n",
    "\n",
    "You also can write quoted text by prefixing the line with a greater-than\n",
    "`>` character. You can also write multi-line block quoted text by\n",
    "prefixing every line with a greater-than `>` character. For example, the\n",
    "following Markdown:  \n",
    "  \n",
    "\\> Here is a long line of text  \n",
    "\\> that we wrapped over multiple lines by inserting a Markdown line break  \n",
    "\\> that is of course multiple space characters inserted at the end  \n",
    "\\> of a line.\n",
    "\n",
    "will produce the following formatted text:\n",
    "\n",
    "> Here is a long line of text  \n",
    "> that we wrapped over multiple lines by inserting a Markdown line break  \n",
    "> that is of course multiple space characters inserted at the end  \n",
    "> of a line.\n",
    "\n",
    "For more detailed discussion, look at the official [Markdown][1]\n",
    "documentation and the demonstration [IPython Notebook][3] Markdown\n",
    "demonstration notebook.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----\n",
    "\n",
    "[df]: http://daringfireball.net\n",
    "[1]: http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/\n",
    "[2]: http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/license\n",
    "[3]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/Notebook/Working%20With%20Markdown%20Cells.ipynb"
   ]
  },
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    "## Math Formulae\n",
    "\n",
    "We can include detailed math formulae in a markdown call by using\n",
    "[LaTeX][1], a general purpose text formatting language that is commonly\n",
    "used in academia for scientific articles. LaTeX can be difficult to\n",
    "master, but is fairly simple for writing simple math formulae. The LaTeX\n",
    "formulae are translated for display in a web browser by the [MathJax][2]\n",
    "Javascript display engine. \n",
    "\n",
    "To indicate a LaTeX formulae, the simplest approach is to enclose the\n",
    "relevant LaTeX between dollar sign characters, `$ ... $`. Many specific\n",
    "functions, or math symbols are prefixed with a forward slash character,\n",
    "`\\`. For example, to write the LaTeX formulae for lowercase Greek\n",
    "character theta, you would write `$\\theta$`. The [support for\n",
    "mathematical expressions][3] in LaTeX is quite extensive, and there are\n",
    "tools, such as [LaTeXit][4] or browser add-ons that can help build and\n",
    "test LaTeX expressions.\n",
    "\n",
    "For example, the LaTeX expression \n",
    "\n",
    "`$\\int_0^{\\pi} \\sin(\\theta)\\ d\\theta = 2$` \n",
    "\n",
    "is translated into \n",
    "\n",
    "$\\int_0^{\\pi} \\sin(\\theta)\\ d\\theta = 2$ \n",
    "\n",
    "in an IPython markdown cell by MathJaX.\n",
    "\n",
    "LaTeX can also be used in code blocks to provide cleaner or more\n",
    "descriptive plot labels (for example, theta versus $\\theta$).\n",
    "\n",
    "-----\n",
    "[1]: http://latex-project.org\n",
    "[2]: http://www.mathjax.org\n",
    "[3]: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Mathematics\n",
    "[4]: http://pierre.chachatelier.fr/latexit/latexit-home.php?lang=en"
   ]
  },
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   "source": [
    "## Unix Commands\n",
    "\n",
    "We [previously](1_unixdp.ipynb), we discussed how to perform different\n",
    "data science tasks at the Unix command line. We can actually execute\n",
    "nearly all of thee commands from within the IPython Notebook, by using a\n",
    "_Code Cell_ and preceding the Unix command by an exclamation point. For\n",
    "example, to display the current working directory, we would enter `!pwd`\n",
    "and subsequently execute this code cell. \n",
    "\n",
    "This capability is actually very useful; for example, we can put a\n",
    "`wget` command at the start of an IPython Notebook to retrieve a data\n",
    "set that will be used in the rest of the notebook. This makes the\n",
    "notebook self-contained and easy to share or distribute to run in a\n",
    "Docker container on another machine. This sequence can be seen in the\n",
    "following figure:\n",
    "\n",
    "![IPYthon notebook running Unix commands](images/ipynb-unix.png)\n",
    "\n",
    "If you try this out in your IPython Notebook, you will also see the\n",
    "non-blocking capability of an IPython Code Cell, since the Unix command\n",
    "runs in the background allowing you to continue working within the\n",
    "Notebook.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Writing and Executing Code\n",
    "\n",
    "Of course, the reason we are using IPython Notebooks is that they allow\n",
    "for in place development and execution of Python code. There are a\n",
    "number of direct benefits you accrue by developing and executing code in\n",
    "an IPython Notebook:\n",
    "\n",
    "1. Run code in place with the output displayed in the notebook,  \n",
    "2. Display visualizations inline,  \n",
    "3. Run code in the background, while you edit or run code in other cells,  \n",
    "4. Clean restarts of the IPython kernel, and  \n",
    "5. Built-in support for parallelization.\n",
    "\n",
    "The simplest of these capabilities to demonstrate is developing and\n",
    "running code in the Notebook. The code can be a single line or multiple\n",
    "lines. Code cells can be executed by using one of two key combinations:\n",
    "CTRL-return, which executes the cell in place, or SHFT-return, which\n",
    "executes the code and advances to the next cell. For example, as shown\n",
    "below, we have a single line of Python code that can be executed with\n",
    "the output directly shown."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello World!\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(\"Hello World!\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "-----\n",
    "### Python Programs\n",
    "\n",
    "An IPython Notebook cell can take a full Python program, including\n",
    "importing Python libraries, which are in scope for the remainder of the\n",
    "Notebook. For example, we can compute the integral shown earlier by\n",
    "importing a constant and a function from the `numpy` library and an\n",
    "integration function from the `scipy` library:\n",
    "\n",
    "$\\int_0^{\\pi} \\sin(\\theta)\\ d\\theta = 2$ "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "The Integral = 2.0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import numpy as np\n",
    "from scipy.integrate import quad\n",
    "\n",
    "print(\"The Integral = %3.1f\" % quad(np.sin, -2.0 * np.pi, np.pi)[0])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "-----\n",
    "\n",
    "### Inline Figures\n",
    "\n",
    "When making data visualization, the resulting plots or images can be\n",
    "displayed inline. The recommended way to accomplish this is to use the\n",
    "`%matplotlib` line magic, which will inform the IPython kernel to\n",
    "display the image inline; this magiuc can take either the `inline` or\n",
    "the `notebook` value, the `inline` value will generally be preferred in\n",
    "this class for simplicity. Note you may see suggestions to use the\n",
    "`%pylab` line magic, but this approach is no longer recommended since it\n",
    "pollutes the global namespace by importing several Python libraries."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<matplotlib.text.Text at 0x7fd647a9ca20>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 13,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
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Smh/++Ec49tjYaSSGpUtht91Cf8VJJ8VOI7miQiGNds458M03MHJk7CQS09tvh/22J02C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\nqdX/BwFjWcZOEFDlAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x7fd646d5b630>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "%matplotlib inline\n",
    "\n",
    "theta = np.arange(0., np.pi, 0.01)\n",
    "y = np.sin(theta)\n",
    "\n",
    "import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n",
    "\n",
    "plt.plot(theta, y)\n",
    "plt.xlabel(r\"$\\theta$\")\n",
    "plt.ylabel(r\"$\\sin$($\\theta$)\")\n",
    "plt.title(\"My Awesome Title\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "-----\n",
    "\n",
    "### Running code in the background\n",
    "\n",
    "One of the features of the IPython kernel that novices fail to\n",
    "appreciate is the ability for code, by default, to run in the\n",
    "background. This is useful, as we will see throughout this course, both\n",
    "when developing, but also when executing code. For example, the\n",
    "following code block slowly prints out a series of numbers, by default\n",
    "the integers from 0 to 9. When we execute the cell, the integers slowly\n",
    "print out while we are free to edit or run code in other cells."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# First we handle our imports.\n",
    "import sys\n",
    "from time import sleep\n",
    "\n",
    "# Parameters that we can change\n",
    "s = 20\n",
    "t = 2\n",
    "\n",
    "# Now loop, printing out a new number before sleeping\n",
    "for i in range(s):\n",
    "    sys.stdout.write(\"%3d,\" % i)\n",
    "    sys.stdout.flush()\n",
    "    sleep(t)\n",
    "    \n",
    "# The code continues to run in the background"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "-----\n",
    "\n",
    "### Clean kernel restarts\n",
    "\n",
    "In some occasions, our code might cause the Python interpreter to crash.\n",
    "While this normally might be a serious concern, the IPython kernel can\n",
    "detect this condition and initiate a clean restart. In this Notebook, we\n",
    "won't intentionally do this; however, the IPython development team does\n",
    "provide a [notebook][1] capable of demonstrating this on a Linux or Mac host\n",
    "computer.\n",
    "\n",
    "-----\n",
    "[1]: http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/ipython/ipython/blob/master/examples/Notebook/Running%20Code.ipynb"
   ]
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    "### Additional References\n",
    "\n",
    "1. [IPython videos]( http://ipython.org/videos.html).\n",
    "2. [IPython documentation](http://ipython.org/ipython-doc/stable/index.html).\n",
    "\n",
    "-----"
   ]
  }
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