This section moves beyond explicit feedback, introducing the neural collaborative filtering (NCF) framework for recommendation with implicit feedback. Implicit feedback is pervasive in recommender systems. Actions such as Clicks, buys, and watches are common implicit feedback which are easy to collect and indicative of users' preferences. The model we will introduce, titled NeuMF :cite:He.Liao.Zhang.ea.2017, short for neural matrix factorization, aims to address the personalized ranking task with implicit feedback. This model leverages the flexibility and non-linearity of neural networks to replace dot products of matrix factorization, aiming at enhancing the model expressiveness. In specific, this model is structured with two subnetworks including generalized matrix factorization (GMF) and multilayer perceptron (MLP) and models the interactions from two pathways instead of simple inner products. The outputs of these two networks are concatenated for the final prediction scores calculation. Unlike the rating prediction task in AutoRec, this model generates a ranked recommendation list to each user based on the implicit feedback. We will use the personalized ranking loss introduced in the last section to train this model.
As aforementioned, NeuMF fuses two subnetworks. The GMF is a generic neural network version of matrix factorization where the input is the elementwise product of user and item latent factors. It consists of two neural layers:
$$ \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{p}_u \odot \mathbf{q}i \ \hat{y}{ui} = \alpha(\mathbf{h}^\top \mathbf{x}), $$
where
Another component of this model is MLP. To enrich model flexibility, the MLP subnetwork does not share user and item embeddings with GMF. It uses the concatenation of user and item embeddings as input. With the complicated connections and nonlinear transformations, it is capable of eastimating the intricate interactions between users and items. More precisely, the MLP subnetwork is defined as:
$$ \begin{aligned} z^{(1)} &= \phi_1(\mathbf{U}_u, \mathbf{V}_i) = \left[ \mathbf{U}_u, \mathbf{V}i \right] \ \phi^{(2)}(z^{(1)}) &= \alpha^1(\mathbf{W}^{(2)} z^{(1)} + b^{(2)}) \ &... \ \phi^{(L)}(z^{(L-1)}) &= \alpha^L(\mathbf{W}^{(L)} z^{(L-1)} + b^{(L)})) \ \hat{y}{ui} &= \alpha(\mathbf{h}^\top\phi^L(z^{(L)})) \end{aligned} $$
where $\mathbf{W}^, \mathbf{b}^$ and $\alpha^$ denote the weight matrix, bias vector, and activation function. $\phi^$ denotes the function of the corresponding layer.
To fuse the results of GMF and MLP, instead of simple addition, NeuMF concatenates the second last layers of two subnetworks to create a feature vector which can be passed to the further layers. Afterwards, the ouputs are projected with matrix
The following figure illustrates the model architecture of NeuMF.
from d2l import mxnet as d2l
from mxnet import autograd, gluon, np, npx
from mxnet.gluon import nn
import mxnet as mx
import random
import sys
npx.set_np()
The following code implements the NeuMF model. It consists of a generalized matrix factorization model and a multi-layered perceptron with different user and item embedding vectors. The structure of the MLP is controlled with the parameter nums_hiddens. ReLU is used as the default activation function.
class NeuMF(nn.Block):
def __init__(self, num_factors, num_users, num_items, nums_hiddens,
**kwargs):
super(NeuMF, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.P = nn.Embedding(num_users, num_factors)
self.Q = nn.Embedding(num_items, num_factors)
self.U = nn.Embedding(num_users, num_factors)
self.V = nn.Embedding(num_items, num_factors)
self.mlp = nn.Sequential()
for num_hiddens in nums_hiddens:
self.mlp.add(nn.Dense(num_hiddens, activation='relu',
use_bias=True))
def forward(self, user_id, item_id):
p_mf = self.P(user_id)
q_mf = self.Q(item_id)
gmf = p_mf * q_mf
p_mlp = self.U(user_id)
q_mlp = self.V(item_id)
mlp = self.mlp(np.concatenate([p_mlp, q_mlp], axis=1))
con_res = np.concatenate([gmf, mlp], axis=1)
return np.sum(con_res, axis=-1)
For pairwise ranking loss, an important step is negative sampling. For each user, the items that a user has not interacted with are candidate items (unobserved entries). The following function takes users identity and candidate items as input, and samples negative items randomly for each user from the candidate set of that user. During the training stage, the model ensures that the items that a user likes to be ranked higher than items she dislikes or has not interacted with.
class PRDataset(gluon.data.Dataset):
def __init__(self, users, items, candidates, num_items):
self.users = users
self.items = items
self.cand = candidates
self.all = set([i for i in range(num_items)])
def __len__(self):
return len(self.users)
def __getitem__(self, idx):
neg_items = list(self.all - set(self.cand[int(self.users[idx])]))
indices = random.randint(0, len(neg_items) - 1)
return self.users[idx], self.items[idx], neg_items[indices]
In this section, we adopt the splitting by time strategy to construct the training and test sets. Two evaluation measures including hit rate at given cutting off
where
The definition of AUC is as follows:
where
The following function calculates the hit counts and AUC for each user.
#@save
def hit_and_auc(rankedlist, test_matrix, k):
hits_k = [(idx, val) for idx, val in enumerate(rankedlist[:k])
if val in set(test_matrix)]
hits_all = [(idx, val) for idx, val in enumerate(rankedlist)
if val in set(test_matrix)]
max = len(rankedlist) - 1
auc = 1.0 * (max - hits_all[0][0]) / max if len(hits_all) > 0 else 0
return len(hits_k), auc
Then, the overall Hit rate and AUC are calculated as follows.
#@save
def evaluate_ranking(net, test_input, seq, candidates, num_users, num_items,
ctx):
ranked_list, ranked_items, hit_rate, auc = {}, {}, [], []
all_items = set([i for i in range(num_users)])
for u in range(num_users):
neg_items = list(all_items - set(candidates[int(u)]))
user_ids, item_ids, x, scores = [], [], [], []
[item_ids.append(i) for i in neg_items]
[user_ids.append(u) for _ in neg_items]
x.extend([np.array(user_ids)])
if seq is not None:
x.append(seq[user_ids, :])
x.extend([np.array(item_ids)])
test_data_iter = gluon.data.DataLoader(
gluon.data.ArrayDataset(*x), shuffle=False, last_batch="keep",
batch_size=1024)
for index, values in enumerate(test_data_iter):
x = [gluon.utils.split_and_load(v, ctx, even_split=False)
for v in values]
scores.extend([list(net(*t).asnumpy()) for t in zip(*x)])
scores = [item for sublist in scores for item in sublist]
item_scores = list(zip(item_ids, scores))
ranked_list[u] = sorted(item_scores, key=lambda t: t[1], reverse=True)
ranked_items[u] = [r[0] for r in ranked_list[u]]
temp = hit_and_auc(ranked_items[u], test_input[u], 50)
hit_rate.append(temp[0])
auc.append(temp[1])
return np.mean(np.array(hit_rate)), np.mean(np.array(auc))
The training function is defined below. We train the model in the pairwise manner.
#@save
def train_ranking(net, train_iter, test_iter, loss, trainer, test_seq_iter,
num_users, num_items, num_epochs, ctx_list, evaluator,
candidates, eval_step=1):
timer, hit_rate, auc = d2l.Timer(), 0, 0
animator = d2l.Animator(xlabel='epoch', xlim=[1, num_epochs], ylim=[0, 1],
legend=['test hit rate', 'test AUC'])
for epoch in range(num_epochs):
metric, l = d2l.Accumulator(3), 0.
for i, values in enumerate(train_iter):
input_data = []
for v in values:
input_data.append(gluon.utils.split_and_load(v, ctx_list))
with autograd.record():
p_pos = [net(*t) for t in zip(*input_data[0:-1])]
p_neg = [net(*t) for t in zip(*input_data[0:-2],
input_data[-1])]
ls = [loss(p, n) for p, n in zip(p_pos, p_neg)]
[l.backward(retain_graph=False) for l in ls]
l += sum([l.asnumpy() for l in ls]).mean()/len(ctx_list)
trainer.step(values[0].shape[0])
metric.add(l, values[0].shape[0], values[0].size)
timer.stop()
with autograd.predict_mode():
if (epoch + 1) % eval_step == 0:
hit_rate, auc = evaluator(net, test_iter, test_seq_iter,
candidates, num_users, num_items,
ctx_list)
animator.add(epoch + 1, (hit_rate, auc))
print(f'train loss {metric[0] / metric[1]:.3f}, '
f'test hit rate {float(hit_rate):.3f}, test AUC {float(auc):.3f}')
print(f'{metric[2] * num_epochs / timer.sum():.1f} examples/sec '
f'on {str(ctx_list)}')
Now, we can load the MovieLens 100k dataset and train the model. Since there are only ratings in the MovieLens dataset, with some losses of accuracy, we binarize these ratings to zeros and ones. If a user rated an item, we consider the implicit feedback as one, otherwise as zero. The action of rating an item can be treated as a form of providing implicit feedback. Here, we split the dataset in the seq-aware mode where users' latest interacted items are left out for test.
batch_size = 1024
df, num_users, num_items = d2l.read_data_ml100k()
train_data, test_data = d2l.split_data_ml100k(df, num_users, num_items,
'seq-aware')
users_train, items_train, ratings_train, candidates = d2l.load_data_ml100k(
train_data, num_users, num_items, feedback="implicit")
users_test, items_test, ratings_test, test_iter = d2l.load_data_ml100k(
test_data, num_users, num_items, feedback="implicit")
train_iter = gluon.data.DataLoader(
PRDataset(users_train, items_train, candidates, num_items ), batch_size,
True, last_batch="rollover", num_workers=d2l.get_dataloader_workers())
We then create and initialize the model. we use a three-layer MLP with constant hidden size 10.
ctx = d2l.try_all_gpus()
net = NeuMF(10, num_users, num_items, nums_hiddens=[10, 10, 10])
net.initialize(ctx=ctx, force_reinit=True, init=mx.init.Normal(0.01))
The following code trains the model.
lr, num_epochs, wd, optimizer = 0.01, 10, 1e-5, 'adam'
loss = d2l.BPRLoss()
trainer = gluon.Trainer(net.collect_params(), optimizer,
{"learning_rate": lr, 'wd': wd})
train_ranking(net, train_iter, test_iter, loss, trainer, None, num_users,
num_items, num_epochs, ctx, evaluate_ranking, candidates)
- Adding nonlinearity to matrix factorization model is beneficial for improving the model capability and effectiveness.
- NeuMF is a combination of matrix factorization and Multilayer perceptron. The multilayer perceptron takes the concatenation of user and item embeddings as the input.
- Vary the size of latent factors. How the size of latent factors impact the model performance?
- Vary the architectures (e.g., number of layers, number of neurons of each layer) of the MLP to check the its impact on the performance.
- Try different optimizers, learning rate and weight decay rate.
- Try to use hinge loss defined in the last section to optimize this model.
